Actors and Dynamics in the Syrian Conflict's Middle Phase

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<P>This volume covers the "middle" time period of the Syrian uprising, roughly from 2012 when Syria¿s peaceful protest began to mutate into a violent insurgency and civil war until roughly 2018 when the conflict took on features of a "frozen conflict". </P><P>The middle period was important as one of <I>key junctures or turning points</I> when the struggle could have reached rather different outcomes. Non-violent protest failed to drive democratization and turned into violent insurrection but revolution from below also failed as did regime counter-insurgency, leaving protracted civil war the default outcome. Second, the <I>consequences</I> of civil war became evident with six themes: failing statehood coexisted with regime resilience; rebel governance emerged as a viable challenge to the regime; social forces were sharply polarized; external actors exacerbated internal divisions; a predatory war economy emerged; and intense violence led to massive displacement of the population. <